India After Mauryas

INDIA AFTER THE MAURYAS (200BC-300AD)
1. SOURCES:-
• Gargi Samhita; the Mahabhashya of Patanjali; the Divyavadana; the Malvikagnimitra of Kalidas &the Harsh Charita
• Evidence of Sunga history also comes from the inscriptions of Ayodhya, Vidisha & Barhut
• Coins maintained by kings
• Cultural contacts:-
• With powers of Western Asia & more so with Central Asia e.g. coins & inscription, written in Kharosthi script are found in large nos. in this period in region of Gandhara
• There are many Kharosthi documents found in Central Asia
• Trade references in Greek & Latin sources
• Buddhist sources e.g. Pali work Milinda-Panha (Questions of Milinda) bears on the Yavana king Menander & on Buddhism in this period
• Information of Yuch – Chis / Kushans is found in chronicles of early & later Han dynasties of China 




2. THE SUNGAS (185-74BC):-
• Pushyamitra, established the dynasty
• Were able to control only a part of erstwhile Mauryan Empire
• He tried to revive Vedic practices & sacrifices & is said to have performed two Asvamedha sacrifices
• Buddhists sources claim that he persecuted Buddhists
• Dominion comprised of entire Gangetic valley & extended up to Narmada
• In north-west, they fought against Greeks & in south-east against the king of Kalinga
• In 74 BC, 4th ruler of the line, Devabhuti, fell victim to the conspiracy of his brahamana minister, Vasudeva
• Although Vasudeva started a new line of rulers, called Kanva, it lasted only for four generations (till 28 BC)
• The fall of the dynasty was followed by the rise of independent principalities at Ayodhya, Kausambi, Mathura & Ahichchhatra




3. LOCAL POWERS:-
• North India
• The Audumbaras occupied the land between the upper course of the Ravi & the Beas
• The Kunidas – between Beas & Yamuna around foothills of Shivalik hills
• Trigartas – between rivers Ravi & Sutlej
• Yaudheyas – between Sutlej & Yamuna & parts of eastern Rajasthan
• Arjunayanas, Malavas & Sibis were distributed in different parts of Rajasthan
• In an inscription written during his reign & found at the Hathigumpha cave of Udaygiri hills near Bhubaneshwar, Karvela claims that he was the 3rd ruler of Mahameghvana family of Kalinga; that his family was a branch of the ancient Chedi family. Her erected cave shelter for Jain monks on the Udaygiri hills
• Deccan
• Many local rulers started ruling regions like Vidarbha, Eastern Deccan, Karnataka & Western Maharashtra
• The Satavahanas emerged victorious & built up an empire in the Deccan & brought together many local centers


• South
• Cheras – controlled the Malabar area
• Cholas – south-eastern coast & Kavery Valley
• Pandyas – around top of the Peninsula
• Sangam texts of this period give us a considerable amount of information on the society, polity, economy & ecology of the regions that these kingdoms ruled




4. NORTH-WESTERN INDIA:-
INDO-GREEK/BACTRIANS
• From the 1st half of the 2nd century BC, the Indo-Greeks occupied a large part of north-western India, as far as Mathura & undertook military expeditions up to the gates of Pataliputra in the east
• The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander/ Milinda (165-145 BC). He was converted to Buddhism by Nagarjuna. The dialogue that took place between the two is recorded the book Milinda-Panha
• They were first to issue coins having name, title & portrait of the ruler who issued them
• They are also important for their introduction of Hellenistic art features in north-western India which culminated the Gandhara art style
 THE SHAKYAS (100-390 AD)
• With construction of Chinese wall by ruler Shi Huang Ti, the nomadic tribes including Yeu-Chi were driven westwards
• Pressed from the north & the east, the Scythians attacked Bactria & occupied its Scythians, known as Sahakas in Indian sources moved from Bactria, invaded Iran & the Greek Kingdom in India
• 1st Shaka king in India was Maues/Moga who established supremacy over north-western India
• Rudradaman (130-152 AD), one of their best known kings stopped the expansion of Satavahana power to north of Narmada
• Shakas’ ambition of expanding their kingdom northward was checked by the Kushans
• Shakas along with Parthians (Pahlavas) introduced the Satrap system of government, which was similar to that of Achaemenid & Seluecid system in Iran. Under this system kingdom was divided to provinces which were governed by the governor called Mahakshatrapa
THE PARTHIANS (PAHLAVAS)
• Oringinated in Iran
• Famous king was Gondophernes; to his court came St. Thomas trough whom India 1st came in contact with Christianity
THE KUSHANAS (YEUH-CHI / TOCHARINS)
• They were North Central Asian nomadic people
• Their chief Kujula Kadphises united 5 tribes of Yeuh-Chi, crossed the Hindukush mountains with his men & established himself in Kabul & Kashmir
• His son Vima Kadphises issued gold coins
• Vima was succeeded by Kanishka I, the best known of Kushan rulers
• The date of his accession was in all probability 78 AD. This year marks beginning of Saka era
• His empire extended far in south to Sanchi & in east to Benaras
• Peshawar was his capital & Mathura 2nd important city
• He also got converted to Buddhism
• He convened the 4th Buddhist Council in Kashmir to discuss matters relating to theology & doctrine
• Buddhist missions were sent to Central Asia & China
• He constructed monastery & stupa at Peshawar






5. IMPACT OF CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS:-
• Old Silk Route was a source of great income to the Kushans
• They levied tolls on traders. Traders of different ethnic origins established trading stations & colonies along the routes. E.g. Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan, Miran
• New elements in cavalry & techniques of war were introduced in India by Shakas & Kushans
• Central Asian also introduced cap, helmet & boots which were used by warriors & this military costume also became popular in north-west India
• Gandhara school of Art – a hybrid of Indo-Greek art
• These contacts also helped in the progress of astronomy & medicine. The widening of medical knowledge is reflected in works of Susutra & Charaka




6. THE DECCAN:-
SOURCES
• Puranas
• Coins of lead, silver & alloy of copper
• Silver coins carry name & portrait of King
• Buddhist caves
SATAVAHANAS (128BC-121AD)
• Capital at Pratishtana (Paithan)
• Since Satavahanas were known as Andhra, it seems that they gradually extended their kingdom to the eastern coast, which was therefore called Andhra in course of time
• Founder of dynasty – Simuka; believed to have destroyed the Sunga power
• Satakarni (128-10 BC) – son of Simuka
• Gautamiputra Satakarni (86-114 AD) – greatest of Satavahana rules. He defeated Kshatrapas of Western Deccan & Gujarat
• Vashisthiputra – Gautamiputra’s  son
• Kingdom was divided into aharas i.e. districts
• E.g. Govardhana – with its center around Nasik; Soparaka – on the west coast; Mamala – comprising Pune & Satara; Satavahanihara – Bellary district of Karnataka
• Yajnashri Satakarni – last important rule
• Bhokardan was a major bead making center & was also known for shell & ivory making
• Society was not governed by brahmanical texts
• Kondakudacharya – founder of Mula Sangha which became popular in south
• Mahayana sect of Buddhism enjoyed popularity
• Acharya Nagarjuna, its greatest exponent
• Under Satavahanas many temples (Chaityas) or worship halls & monasteries (Viharas) were cut out from rocks mainly in north-west Deccan e.g. Nasik, Kanheri, Karle. Stupa around Ellora, Ajanta
• The most famous of these attributed to the Satavahana period are Amravati, sculptural treasure house & Nagarjuna Konda
• Two Chaitya halls & 3 small Viharas at Ajanta






7. SCULPTURAL ART:-
GHANDHAR SCHOOL
• Almost always in a blue-grey mica schist, though sometimes in a green phyllite or in Stucco or very rarely in terracotta
• The characteristic Gandhara sculptures, the standing / seated Buddha, reflects the essential nature of Gandhara art
• The seated Buddha is almost always cross legged in traditional Indian way. He has physical marks of Buddha, chiefs among them, the usina, the urna & elongated ears
• Usina – peak topknot of uncut hair
• Urna – hairy mole, which marked Buddha’s forehead
• The Gandhara Buddha never wears ear rings / ornaments of any sort in his elongated ears
• Gandhara Buddha is invariably shown making one of the four significant & unchanging had gestures, known as mudras, one of the most characteristic features of Indian iconography. They are
1. Abhaya – do not fear
2. Dhyana – signifying meditation
3. Dharmachakra – preaching mudra associated with Buddha’s 1st sermon
4. Bhumispara – earth touching recalling the Buddha ‘Calling the earth to witness” his enlightenment at Bodh Gaya
5. Western classical element resides in style, in the treatment of robe (heavy fold of robe) & in the physiognomy of Buddha, the head is certainly based on Greek God Apollo
• Chief patrons of this art were Shakas & Kushans
MATHURA SCOOL
• Origin traces back to 2nd century BC
• It was here in Kushan Period that the brahamanical icon was born; & also the Jina image, creating its own style of Buddha & Bodhisattva image
• Jains produced distinctive cult objects in the form of the Sarvatobhadrika images (4 standing jinas back to back) & ayagapatas or votive tablets, square slabs bearing relief sculpture as one side possibly used as altars near a stupa for depositing offerings
• Svastika symbol – adopted by Buddhism & Jainism
• Great of standing Buddha’s of Mathura –  wide shoulders, thin prominent breasts & deep navels, lion/ sheaf of lotuses between the feet, Usina, Urna
• Standing Buddha of installed at Sravasti Sarnath (by bhikshu Bala in period of Kanishka I & Kausambi). Small seated Buddha from Mathura were installed at Sanchi Abhichhatra & as far east as Bengal & north-west charsadda outside Peshawar
• The appearance of Hindu icons at Mathura coincides with the emergence of two great theistic cults, the Saiva & Vaisnava
• It also produced free standing sculptures of Kings & other notables e.g. Kanishka
AMRAVATI
• Represents traditional narrative arts taking themes from Buddha’s life & from Jataka stories


















8. THE BEGINNING OF HINDUISM:-
• This was also the time when the brahamanical religion assumed many new features which today are recognized as Hinduism
• Gathasaptasati of Satvahana king Hala; one of the earliest stone sculptures of linga comes from east Andhra Pradesh




9. BUDDHISM:-

HINAYANA	MAHAYANA
Held firm to letter of Buddha’s teachings	To the spirit
Developed with Sangham as center	With the individual
Scriptures are written mainly in Pali & are founded as Tripitika	Written in Sanskrit are the Sutras
Believes in Salvation by works	Believes in faith
Developed around acts of Buddha	Developed around the symbolism of his life & personality
Stressed on righteous action & law of Karma	Held that over & above law of Karma was law of Karuna or Compassion
Ideal is arhat, one who strives for his own redemption	Upholds Bodhisattva / Savior who is concerned with Salvation of other
Regard Buddha as man & does not worship him	Conceives of Buddha as transcendent





10. JAINISM:-
• Royal patronage to Jainism was not as extensive as it was in case of Buddhism
• From Magadha, the Jains moved westwards to Mathura & then to Ujjain & finally settled in Saurashtra on Western coast
• Bhadrabahu, contemporary of Chandragupta Maurya went south & established a center at Sravanbelgola in Karnataka




11. CRAFT, TRADE & TOWNS:-
• Taxila was connected by road to Tamralipti (Tamluk) in Gangetic delta, the chief port for ships sailing to Burma & Ceylon
• Taxila was connected by highway with Kabul from where roads branched off in various directions, one northern route to Black Sea & southerly route from Kandahar & Herat to Ecbatana (in Persia)
• Landmark in development of communication was the discovery of monsoon winds by Greek sailor Hippalus in around AD 46-47. This made mid-navigation via the Arabian sea possible




12. SOUTH INDIA – THE SANGAM AGE:-
• South of the Deccan plateau, the land between the hills of Venkatam & Kanyakumari is called Tamizhakam / Tamilaham
• Sangam poems mention muvender i.e. three chiefs of three ruling families that the Cheras, the Cholas & the Pandyas
• The Cheras had Karur in interior & Muciris, well known ancient part on west coast
• Cholas had Uraijur in interior & Puhar on Corromandal coast
• Pandyas had Madura & Korkar on their interior headquarters and port respectively
• At the Sangams, eminent scholars in literature assembled & functioned as a board of censors & choicest literature was rendered in nature of anthologies
• Ettuttogai – 8 collections of poems
• Pattupattu – 10 idylls are categories of anthologies that comprise heroic poems
• Poems were orally composed & transmitted across a fairy long span of time i.e. 2nd century BC to 3rd century AD before they were classified & compiled
• The poem are earliest specimens of Dravidian language
• Kapilar Pananar, Avvayar & Gautama Manar were some of well-known poets of this period
• Anthologies are divided into akam (love /affection) & puram (raid /plunder)
• Akananuru – collection of poems of akam
• Puramnuru – collection of poems of puram
• Tolkappi-yam – earliest treaties on Tamil Grammar
• Patinenkizkanakku – 18 didactic texts
• Tirukkuval – 18 didactic texts