The Age Of Guptas

THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS
• In 4th century AD a new India dynasty, the Guptas, arose in Magadha & established a large Kingdom over the greater part of northern India
• Their rule lasted for more than 200 years
• This period is also called as Classical Age of ancient India




1. POLITICAL BACKGROUND:-
• In early 4th century AD Kushans & Shaka chiefs had become considerably weak
• Several chiefs emerged prominent among them being the Madras (Punjab), the Yaudheyas (Haryana), Malavas (Rajasthan), the Nagas (Mathura & other centers)
• Satavahana state disappeared before middle of 3rd AD century
• In 3rd century AD Vakatakas emerged in Vidarbha; Ikshvaku in coastal Andhra & Kadambis in Karnataka; Pallavas in Tamil Nadu
• In many areas like Bengal, Odisha, forest regions of Madhya Pradesh & elsewhere, Kingdoms were emerging first time


 
2. CHANDRAGUPTA I:-
• Founder of dynasty
• He married Lichchhavi princess & ascended the throne in about AD 319
• He ruled over Saketa (region of Ayodhya), Prayag (Allahabad) & Magadha




3. SAMUDRAGUPTA (AD 335-376):-
• Son of Chandragupta I
• Harisena, the poet at his court composed inscription & engraved on Asokan pollar at Allahabad or Prayag prasasti
• He defeated 4 kings of northern India & added present day Delhi & western Uttar Pradesh to his Kingdom




4. CHANDRAGUPTA II (AD 376-415):-
• Also known as Vikramaditya
• Conducted victorious campaign in western India against the Shakas (AD 388-409)
• Made marriage alliances with Vakataka kings in western Deccan, the old Satavahana stronghold
• His conquests have been described in pillar inscription at Mahrauli or outskirts of Delhi
• According to inscription, Chandragupta crossed the Sindhu region of seven rivers & defeated Valhikas (identified with Bactria) as well as enemies from Vanga (Bengal)
• He is best remembered for his patronage to learning & arts
• He took pride in having Kalidasa & Amarsimha his court
• Chinese pilgrim Fa-hien (AD 399-414) visited India
• He was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta. A stone inscription from Mandsor (AD 436) mentions Kumaragupta as reigning over the whole earth
• Skandgupta was last powerful Gupta monarch
• Continued attacks of Hunas weakened the empire
• Hunas chief Tormana, became the ruler of Punjab & Kashmir towards end of AD 1st century
• His son Mihirkula further extended the dominions
• The chiefs or Samanta ruled as subordinates to the central authority (in Gupta period)




5. GUPTA ADMINISTRATION:-
• Gupta monarch adopted high sounding titles like Chakravarthi, Parama-daivata, Parambha-ttaraka, to distinguish himself from lesser kings
• Do not seem to have possessed big, organized army
• Troops provided by the feudatories constituted the major portion of Gupta military strength
• Empire was divided into bhuktis (provinces), which were governed by upanikas(governor) appointed by king
• Bhuktis was divided into districts or Vishayas under an official called Ayuktaka appointed by upanika
• Gupta inscriptions from Bengal show that the office of district head, Adhikarana, associated itself with representations from major local communities the Nagarasresthi (head of city merchants), Sarthavaha (caravan leader), Prathama Kulika (head of artisan community), & Prathama Kayastha (head of Kayastha community)
• Lowest unit of administration was the village with its headman called Grampati
• Different categories of villages mentioned – Gramikas, Kutumbis & Mahattaras, sent their representatives to Astakuladhikarana, head of a unit intermediate between a village & district
• Village disputes were settled by village elders or Grama Vriddhas
• Officers were paid salaries in grants of land. Cash salaries were paid for military service alone
• Agrahara grant – a tax free land grant to priests & temples


 
6. REVENUE ADMINISTRATION:-
• Land revenue main source of state’s income
• A regular department for measurement & proper survey of land was maintained
• Kalidasa & Narada Smriti state that one-sixth of produce should be claimed as the royal revenue
• Uparikara – levied on cloth, oil etc. (transport)
• Sulka – commercial tax for traders
• Visthi – king had right to impose forced labor




7. TRADE & TOWNS:-
• Guptas issued largest no. of gold coins in ancient India
• Fa-Hien tells us that cowries (shells) became the common medium of exchange
• Craft produced suffered in comparison to Shaka-Kushan period
• East coast – Tamralipti, Ghantashala & Kadura – traded with south east Asia
• West coast – Broach, Chaul, Kalyan & Cambay – traded with Mediterranean & west Asia
• Chines silk came in greater quantity as did ivory of Ethiopia
• Import of Horses from Arabia, Iran & Bactria increased during this period
• Mathura, Benaras & Thanesar became prominent




8. SOCIETY:-
• Standard of living was high
• Social position of Shudras seems to have improved in this period
• They were permitted to listen the epics & Puranas & could also worship god Krishna
WOMEN
• Status of women continued to decline
• Not permitted for formal education
• Early marriages were advocated
• Celibacy was to be strictly observed by widows
• Practice of Sati found approval of jurists, but seems to have been confined to upper classes
CASTE SYSTEM
• Varna system begins to get modified owing to the proliferation of castes
• Vishnudharmottara Purana, a work of 8th century mentions that thousands of mixed castes were produced as a result of union of Vaisya women & men of different castes
• Varnasamskara – intermixing of castes
• Annuloma – marriages between bridegroom of upper caste & bride from lower caste were sanctioned
• Pratiloma – reverse of annuloma was censored
UNTOUCHABLES
• From around 3rd century onwards, the practice of untouchability appears to have intensified
• Katyana, Dharmasastra writer of Gupta period was the 1st to use the expression asprasya to denote untouchables
 RELIGIONS
• Buddhism & Hinduism received wide support
• Hinduism acquired characteristics which have remained with it, while Buddhism assumed a form which was to lead its decline
• Jainism important aspects of Hinduism became crystalized at this point. Image of God emerged as center of worship & worship superseded sacrifice
• This in turn encouraged bhakti (devotional worship); where the priest was not so dominant figure as in sacrifice
• Development of Shakti cult in Hinduism; which believed that the male could be activated only by being united with female
• Tantrism emerged as a religious factor in 6th century
• Religious practices which originated in primitive fertility rites of non-aryan tribal circle came to be known as tantrism
• Core of tantrism means essentially rites involving use of five makaras: matsya (fish); mamsa (meat); madya (liquor); maithuna (sex); mudra (physical gestures)
• In tantrism practices of the period, 3 important features were higher status to women, sexual rites & presence of many female deities
• At the end of Gupta period these aboriginal or tribal goddess entered into Brahmanism as Shakti, Buddhism as Tara & Jainism as many Yakshinis
SIX SYSTEMS OF HINDU PHILOSOPHY
1. Nyaya:-
Or school of logic & epistemology deriving mainly from Sutras of Akshapada Gautama, who probably lived in early centuries of Christian era. Salvation can be attained by acquisition of knowledge & veracity of proposition or a statement can be tested through inference, hearing & analogy
2. Vaisheshika:-
Founder of the system was Uluka Kannada. According to it, material objects are made up of atoms, but the scientific view was diluted with belief in god & spiritualism, heaven & salvation
3. Sankhya:-
The world owes its creation & evolution more to nature, Prakriti, than to god. Around 4th century in addition to Prakriti, Purusha or spirit was introduced as an element of system. Salvation can be attained by acquisition of real knowledge. This can be acquired through perception, inference and hearing, a method typical of scientific spirit of inquiry
4. Yoga:-
Deals with control of body & physical level. It dates back to Yoga Sutra of Patanjali, who lived in 2nd century BC, but reduction of Sutras to their present form is attributed to Vyasa, who lived seven centuries later. To attain salvation, physical exercises called asanas & breathing exercises, pranayama are prescribed
5. Mimamsa :-
Literally – art of reasoning & interpretation. Reasoning was used to explain & revive Vedas. The greatest of early Mimamsa scholars was Shabarasvamin, who flourished in AD 6th century. One could attain salvation by performing Vedic sacrifices with all their rituals
6. Vedanta (Uttaramimamsa):-
Claims its foundation in Vedas. Badarayana is said to have formulated its main texts in early centuries of Christian era. Later two famous commentaries were written on it, one by Shankara in 9th century & other by Ramanuja in 12th century. Shankara considered Jnana (knowledge) be the chief mean of salvation & that the Vedas were fountain of knowledge. He established his own matt at Badrinath (north); Puri (east); Dwarka (west); Sringeri (south) where simplified worship was practiced. Ramanuja road to salvation lies in practicing devotion & giving oneself up entirely to god (he also pleaded that temples should be thrown open to Shudras but without much success). Vedanta philosophy was traced back to earlier Upanishads. Accordingly Brahma is the reality & everything else is unreal (maya). The self (soul) or atma is identical with Brahma. Therefore if a person acquires knowledge of self he realizes knowledge of Brahma & thus attains salvation. Both Brahma & atma are eternal & indestructible. Puranas were composed during this period.




9. ART & ACHITECTURE:-
• E.g. of Gupta architecture that are found in the much restored Gupta temple at Sanchi, the Kankali – Tila at Tigawa (Jabalpur), together with the only partially rock cut cave at Udaygiri are probably the earliest of surviving shrines
• Dasavatara temple at Deogarh near Jhansi (AD 510), is a large & more elaborate edifice with a pyramidal tower
• Bhita (Bhitargaon) in UP, has ruins of no. of ancient Gupta temples
• Typically Gupta temple is flat-roofed with a Sikra, or more rarely with a low stunted Sikra; consisted cubical garbgriha in which central cult images was placed (seat of images were shifted to walls of the temple) & had a single entrance & Mandapa or Porch; it had rows of pillars with ‘vase & foliage’ capitals, square pedestals & octagonal shafts
• Doorways were carved with bands of figures in relief a special motif being a row of maithuna (male & female) couples
• First dated sculpture in full-fledged early Gupta style are from Vidisha & the nearby Udaygiri caves in MP e.g. 4 armed standing Vishnu with plain cylindrical crowns standing stiff legged in Sampada, flanked by ayudha purushas, the personified images/ symbol is among the most charming creations of Gupta period. Durga – killing demon-buffalo, in archer ayudha pose. Vishnu – incarnated as boar with a man’s head.
• At Besnagar – Sapta matrakas (seven mothers)
• At Eran (in ancient Airikina) – Vishnu as Varaha & Narasimha
• Most impressive achievement of Gupta sculptures at Mathura are the standing Buddhas; Mukhlingas
• Remains of ancient paintings at Ajanta (in 4 of later caves), & fragments of paintings at Bagh is all we have of Gupta period




10. LITERATURE:-
• Sanskrit language & literature had reached a level of classical excellence as was reflected in Kalidasa’s – Abhijana-Sakuntalam, Meghduta, Raghuvamsha, Kumara-Sambhava & Ritusamhara
• Shudrika wrote Mrichchhakatika (deals with love affair of rich merchant with courtesan)
• Vishakhadatta wrote Mudrarakshasa
• Bhasa wrote 13 plays – romantic comedies
• Amarasimha – Amarkosa (Sanskrit Grammar)
• Panchatantra – collection of fables
• Kamasutra – standard Indian text on sexual love




11. SCIENCE & ASTRONOMY:-
• 230 foot-high iron pillar found at Delhi near Mehrauli, which has not rusted in subsequent 15 centuries
• Life-size standing image of Buddha cast in copper in two parts. These shows improved knowledge of metals in Gupta period
• Intensely active period of mathematics
• Aryabhatta was first astronomer to pose the ore fundamental problems of astronomy in AD 499. He calculated π=3.1416 & length of solar year 365.3586805 days.
• Varahmihira a contemporary of him was the author of Panchsiddhantika (5 schools of astronomy) a concise account of 5 currently used schools of which two, Romakasiddhanta & Paulishasiddhanta, reflect a close knowledge of Greek astronomy




THE SUCCESSORS OF GUPTAS: THE AGE OF SMALLER KINGDOMS
• Disintegration of Gupta empire gradually paved way for growth of many kingdoms
• Yashovardhana (Aulikara Family) ruled Mandsor (western Malwa) & were feudatories of Gupta
• Maukharis (earlier Samanta of Guptas) held sway over modern UP & parts of Magadha
• From middle of 6th century till about AD 675, the kings ruled Magadha were known as later Guptas. Their most powerful ruler was Adityasen & his empire included Magadha, Anga & Bengal
• The line came to an end with expansion of power of the Gaudas of Bengal. But Gaudas were subdued by Yashovarvarman of Kanauj
• Other important states emerged post Gupta period – Maitras of Valabhi in Gujarat, Gurjaras in Rajputana & Gujarat
• Varmans of Kamrup (Assam) – 1st historical royal family of Assam








HARSHAVARDHANA (AD 606-647)
• Belonged to Pushyabhukti family
• Ruled in Thanesar, north of Delhi
• His biography Harshcharita by Bana, one of the court poets
• Chinese pilgrim Hein-Tsang visited India
• Moved his capital from Thanesar to Kanauj
• Harsha’s ambition of extending his power into Deccan & southern India was stopped by Pulakesin II, the Chalukya King of Vatapi (Badami) in northern Mysore
• Governed his empire on the lines of Guptas
• Law & order situation seems to have slackened during this period, as Hein-Tsang was victim of plunder by dacoits
• His contemporary, the Tang emperor Tai Tsang, sent an embassy to his court in AD 643 & again in AD 647
• Hein-Tsang noticed that at Harsha’s time Buddhism was not as popular in all parts of India as he had thought it would be. But in eastern India, it was still very popular Nalanda was still famous center of Buddhism
• He also recorded existence of a rigid caste system
• He described that there was no death sentences.